Francisco de Assis Dias Martins Júnior*

francisco.junior@aluno.ufop.edu.br

Marcos Daniel Motta Drummond**

zangmarcos@gmail.com

Julia Pelli Canhestro+

juliacanhestronutri@gmail.com

Ana Luísa Domingues Carvalhaes++

ana.dcarvalhaes@gmail.com

*Graduado em Educação Física

Mestre em Saúde e Nutrição

Doutorando em Ciências do Esporte

na Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG)

Membro do Laboratório de Nutrição e Treinamento Esportivo

da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (LAN/UFMG)

**Doutor em Ciências do Esporte (UFMG)

Mestre em Ciências do Esporte (UFMG)

Especialista em Fisiologia do Exercício (UVA)

Graduação em Nutrição (UNI-BH)

Graduado em Educação Física (UFMG)

Professor do curso de graduação em Educação Física da UFMG

Professor e orientador na pós-graduação

stricto sensu em Ciências do Esporte da UFMG

Coordenador do Laboratório de Nutrição

e Treinamento Esportivo (LAN) da UFMG

Supervisor e nutricionista do Centro de Treinamento Esportivo (CTE) da UFMG

+Graduada em Nutrição pela UFMG

Pós graduanda em Nutrição Esportiva e Obesidade pela Universidade de São Paulo

Membro do Laboratório de Nutrição e Treinamento Esportivo da UFMG

++Graduada em Nutrição pela UFMG

Pós graduanda em Nutrição Esportiva e Obesidade

pela Universidade de São Paulo

Membro do Laboratório de Nutrição

e Treinamento Esportivo da UFMG (LAN/UFMG)

(Brasil)

Reception: 08/28/2024 - Acceptance: 01/16/2025

1st Review: 12/25/2024 - 2nd Review: 12/25/2024

Accessible document. Law N° 26.653. WCAG 2.0

Suggested reference: Martins Júnior, F. de A.D., Drummond, M.D.M., Canhestro, J.P., y Carvalhaes, A.L.D. (2025). Influence of Professional Nutritional Support on Dietary Profile of Strength-Trained Women. Lecturas: Educación Física y Deportes, 29(321), 108-126. https://doi.org/10.46642/efd.v29i321.7864

 

Abstract

    Appropriate eating habits and personalized nutritional strategies combined with strength training can optimize metabolic pathways, enhance strength gains, and improve body composition. The present study aims to characterize and analyze how professional nutritional support influences the dietary profile and energy balance (EB) of strength-trained women. This cross-sectional study includes 64 strength-trained women divided into four groups: HyperWith (nutritional support, hypertrophy objective), WLossWith (nutritional support, weight loss objective), HyperWithout (no nutritional support, hypertrophy objective), and WLossWithout (no nutritional support, weight loss objective). Dietary profile and total energy expenditure (TEE) were assessed using a 24-hour food recall and physical activity diary. Statistical analysis was conducted using one-way ANOVA (α=0.05), followed by Tukey's post hoc test to identify group differences. The TEE, energy intake, and macronutrient intake were recorded and compared. No significant difference in TEE was found between groups, though individual variations were observed. Statistically significant differences (p<0.05) were noted in EB, total calories, and macronutrients. The HyperWith group had a significantly higher mean total caloric value than WLossWith (p=0.006) and WLossWithout (p=0.011), with significant differences in EB between WLossWith and HyperWith (p=0.006) and between HyperWith and WLossWithout (p=0.008). HyperWith showed higher means of carbohydrates, proteins (p<0.001), and lipids (p=0.044). The study emphasizes the importance of professional nutritional support for strength-trained women aiming for weight loss or hypertrophy, finding that dietary profiles and EB were partially aligned with recommendations, particularly among those receiving support.

    Keywords: Macronutrient intake. Hypertrophy. Weight loss. Body composition. Women's health.

 

Resumo

    Hábitos alimentares adequados e estratégias dietéticas personalizadas, aliadas ao treinamento de força, podem prevenir deficiências nutricionais, otimizar o metabolismo, aumentar a força e melhorar a composição corporal. O presente estudo tem como objetivo caracterizar e analisar como o suporte nutricional profissional influencia o perfil alimentar e o balanço energético (BE) de mulheres treinadas em força. Este estudo transversal incluiu 64 mulheres, divididas em quatro grupos: HiperCom (com acompanhamento nutricional, objetivo de hipertrofia), EmaCom (com acompanhamento nutricional, objetivo de emagrecimento), HiperSem (sem acompanhamento nutricional, objetivo de hipertrofia), EmaSem (com acompanhamento nutricional, objetivo de emagrecimento). O perfil alimentar e o gasto energético total (GET) foram avaliados utilizando um recordatório alimentar de 24 horas e um diário de atividade física. A análise estatística utilizou one-way ANOVA (α=0,05) e o teste post hoc de Tukey para comparar os grupos. Não houve diferença significativa no GET entre os grupos, embora variações individuais foram observadas. Diferenças significativas (p<0,05) foram encontradas no BE, consumo calórico e macronutrientes. O grupo HiperCom apresentou maior ingestão calórica em comparação aos grupos EmaCom (p=0,006) e EmaSem (p=0,011), além de diferenças no BE entre EmaCom e HiperCom (p=0,006) e entre HiperCom e EmaSem (p=0,008). HiperCom apresentou as maiores médias dos macronutrientes. O estudo enfatiza a importância do suporte nutricional profissional para mulheres treinadas em força, com o perfil dietético e balanço energético parcialmente adequados conforme recomendações nutricionais, destacando-se em mulheres com acompanhamento nutricional.

    Unitermos: Ingestão de macronutrientes. Hipertrofia. Perda de peso. Composição corporal. Saúde da mulher.

 

Resumen

    Unos hábitos alimentarios adecuados y estrategias dietéticas personalizadas, combinados con un entrenamiento de fuerza, pueden prevenir deficiencias nutricionales, optimizar el metabolismo, aumentar la fuerza y ​​mejorar la composición corporal. El presente estudio tiene como objetivo caracterizar y analizar cómo el apoyo nutricional profesional influye en el perfil dietético y el equilibrio energético (EE) de mujeres entrenadas en fuerza. Este estudio transversal incluyó a 64 mujeres, divididas en cuatro grupos: HiperCon (con seguimiento nutricional, objetivo de hipertrofia), PerCon (con seguimiento nutricional, objetivo de pérdida de peso), HiperSin (sin seguimiento nutricional, objetivo de hipertrofia), PerSin (con seguimiento nutricional, objetivo de pérdida de peso). El perfil dietético y el gasto energético total (GET) se evaluaron mediante un recordatorio dietético de 24 horas y un diario de actividad física. El análisis estadístico utilizó ANOVA unidireccional (α=0,05) y la prueba post hoc de Tukey para comparar los grupos. No hubo diferencias significativas en GET entre los grupos, aunque se observaron variaciones individuales. Se encontraron diferencias significativas (p<0,05) en BE, ingesta calórica y macronutrientes. El grupo HiperCon tuvo mayor ingesta calórica respecto a los grupos PerCon (p=0,006) y PerSin (p=0,011), además de diferencias en EE entre PerCon e HiperCon (p=0,006) y entre HiperCon y PerSin (p=0,008). . HiperCon presentó los promedios de macronutrientes más altos. El estudio destaca la importancia del apoyo nutricional profesional a las mujeres entrenadas en fuerza, con un perfil dietético y un balance energético parcialmente adecuado según las recomendaciones nutricionales, especialmente en mujeres con seguimiento nutricional.

    Palabras clave: Ingesta de macronutrientes. Hipertrofia. Pérdida de peso. Composición corporal. Salud de la mujer.

 

Lecturas: Educación Física y Deportes, Vol. 29, Núm. 321, Feb. (2025)

---

 

Introduction 

 

    The implementation of nutritional guidelines and dietary prescriptions is crucial for maintaining health and enhancing sports performance and aesthetics (Cavalcante, & Matos, 2022) (Moreira, & Rodrigues, 2014). Physical exercise, including strength training, is also important in these aspects (Santos Junior et al., 2021; Westcott, 2012). In this sense, appropriate eating habits and individualized dietary prescriptions can prevent nutritional deficiencies, optimize metabolic function (Vázquez Franco et al., 2020) and promote strength gains, as well as improve body composition when combined with exercise (Morocho-Quinchuela, Martínez-Martínez, & Reascos-Chalacán, 2023; Kerksick et al., 2017). Therefore, it is essential to consider each person's food preferences, specific energy requirements, and the demands of each activity, physical exercise, and/or sport. (McArdle et al., 2016)

 

    Strength training is a method aimed at increasing strength, power, and motor performance, as well as muscle hypertrophy, involving the application of resistance to muscles from external sources (Esco, 2013). This resistance can be achieved through various approaches, including free weights, weight machines, and body-weight exercises (Rhodes et al., 2017). For strength training practitioners, a diet that provides energy and appropriate proportions of macronutrients is crucial for proper physiological processes such as glycogen replenishment, amino acid supply for muscle repair and hypertrophy and the maintenance of essential fat intake to ensure nutrient adequacy (McArdle et al., 2016; Borruel Abadía et al., 2020). Additionally, the training phase (Stellingwerff et al., 2019), intensity, and duration also influence the demand for energy substrates (American College of Sports Medicine [ACSM], 2016), highlighting the importance of professional nutritional support and monitoring.

 

    Therefore, given the relevance of nutritional intervention, it is essential that a qualified nutrition professional conducts a thorough assessment and develops a dietary plan based on appropriate nutritional guidelines (McArdle et al., 2016; Santana, Rezende, & Fortes, 2023). This enables professional nutritional support to promote nutrition education, enabling individuals to make autonomous food choices (Spronk et al., 2014). However, in the absence of assessment, guidance, and nutritional prescription by a specialist, relying on various sources of information coupled with beliefs and dietary habits, can result in inadequate behaviors and consumption patterns among strength training practitioners (Hirschbruch, & Ribeiro, 2014), potentially leading to nutritional deficiencies that are harmful to performance and health (Rosa, Soder, & Benetti, 2021). In this context, driven by social comparison, women may be more vulnerable to body image dissatisfaction, leading them to seek more interventions through diet and exercise. (Dumas, & Desroches, 2019)

 

    Thus, the present study aims to characterize and analyze how professional nutritional support influences the dietary profile and energy balance (EB) of strength-trained women. It was hypothesized that professional nutritional support would ensure compliance with recommendations and align with the objectives of the volunteers, more effectively than in the absence of professional support.

 

Methods 

 

Study design 

 

    This is a cross-sectional study, with strength-trained women. Their energy balance and dietary profile were recorded and analyzed, particularly regarding macronutrient distribution. Professional nutritional support was considered in relation to participants individual objectives, such as muscle hypertrophy or weight loss.

 

    Participants received instructions about the 24-hour dietary recall (R24H) procedures to ensure accurate responses (Fisberg, Marchioni, & Colucci, 2009; Rutishauser, 2005). Subsequently, they completed the R24H for a typical day in a remote session to assess their dietary profile. The amount of each macronutrient, carbohydrates (CHO), lipids (LIP), and proteins (PTN), consumed daily was recorded both as a percentage and grams per kilogram (g/kg) (Simões et al., 2022). Additionally, total daily energy intake (TEI) was determined by summing the calories from each macronutrient. To analyze total energy expenditure (TEE), a recall of physical activities and exercises was conducted on the same day as the R24H, categorizing activities in multiples of metabolic equivalents (MET). (Ainsworth et al., 2000; Parreira et al., 2022)

 

Sample 

 

    The sample consisted of 64 women and was defined by convenience and considering the following inclusion criteria: being female, trained in strength training for a minimum period of 12 months with a minimum frequency of 3 sessions per week (Rhea, 2004). Exclusion criteria included incomplete responses or refusals to provide information during the application of nutritional assessment tools. Participants were recruited through study promotion on social media and direct invitations to potential participants.

 

    Regarding ethical considerations, the present study respected the anonymity of the volunteers. Initially, all participants were provided with instructions regarding the essential information needed to follow the research protocol, as well as the objectives and procedures of the methodology. At the end participants were instructed to sign the free and informed consent form, agreeing to voluntarily participate in the study. Additionally, all guidelines established by the National Health Council (Resolution 466/2012) were followed.

 

Composition and division of groups 

 

    To analyze the influence of professional nutritional support on energy balance and dietary profile in strength-trained women, volunteers were initially grouped into two groups, each consisting of 32 participants: with and without professional nutritional support.

 

    For the composition of the group with professional nutritional support, volunteers included those who received support and/or intervention from nutritionists, had a dietary plan prescribed, and received dietary advice from qualified nutrition professionals, ensuring continuous guidance for at least one year, with the last intervention occurring up to six months prior to the study data collection. In contrast, for the group without professional nutritional support, volunteers were included if they did not receive any form of intervention, guidance, or individualized support.

 

    Next, within these groups, they were divided according to their primary training objective, either muscle hypertrophy or weight loss, resulting in 16 volunteers in each group. Thus, in the end, the established groups were: the HyperWith, group with professional nutritional support, aiming for muscle hypertrophy; the WLossWith, group with professional nutritional support, aiming for weight loss; the HyperWithout, group without professional nutritional support, aiming for muscle hypertrophy; the WLossWithout, group without professional nutritional support, aiming for weight loss.

 

Procedures 

 

    Dietary assessment 

 

    The dietary profile of the volunteers was estimated by applying the 24-hour dietary recall, determining energy intake (Kcal) and macronutrient intake (g/kg/day). The procedures adopted were the same as those in the study by Simões et al. (2022).

 

    The calculation of food consumption and total energy expenditure was performed using Dietbox® software (version 8.2.3. online, Brazil). The following food composition tables were selected as references, in priority order: Brazilian Table of Food Composition (Tabela Brasileira de Composição de Alimentos - TACO); Brazilian Table of Food Composition (Tabela Brasileira de Composição de Alimentos - TBCA); Nutritional Composition Table of Foods Consumed in Brazil; and Sonia Tucunduva Philippi Table. Additionally, for processed foods not included in the software database, the nutritional information from the brands consumed was entered.

 

    Macronutrient recommendations 

 

    The dietary profile of the volunteers was evaluated based on the recommendations of the International Society of Sports Nutrition (ISSN) for individuals involved in general fitness programs (Kerksick et al., 2018). For carbohydrates, they suggest an intake of 3 to 5 g/kg/day. Regarding proteins, the recommended intake ranges from 1.2 to 2.0 g/kg/day (Jäger, 2017). For lipids, the guidelines indicate an intake of 0.5 to 1.5 g/kg/day. (Kerksick et al., 2018)

 

    Total energy expenditure 

 

    The total energy expenditure of the volunteers was calculated using Dietbox® software (version 8.2.3. online, Brazil), based on equation 1 (Eq. 1). For the calculation, basal metabolic rate (BMR) was obtained using the Harris-Benedict formula (1919) (Eq. 2). Daily physical activities were recorded bases on each volunteer's routine activity level. Physical activities were categorized by converting daily exercise descriptions from the same day reported in the R24H into MET (metabolic equivalents), as determined by the compendium presented by Ainsworth et al. (2000).

 

TEE= BMR x Activity level + MET Eq. 1

 

655 + (9.6 x Weight) + (1.9 x Height) - (4.7 x Age) Eq. 2

 

    Energy balance 

 

    The energy balance was determined by the difference between total caloric intake and total energy expenditure. A 5% margin was applied to accommodate potential variations in energy intake estimation (Parreira et al., 2022). Based on the caloric balance, each volunteer's diet was categorized as hypercaloric, normocaloric, or hypocaloric.

 

    Statistical analyses 

 

    The statistical analysis addressed both quantitative and qualitative aspects of the data. Means and standard deviations were determined for parameters evaluated in relation to dietary profile (total caloric value and macronutrients), total energy expenditure, and energy balance. Group comparisons were conducted using analysis of variance (ANOVA) via One-Way ANOVA. Where applicable, Tukey's post hoc test was used to identify differences between groups. A significance level of 0.05 was adopted. Statistical analysis was performed using Jamovi software, version 2.3.28.

 

    Through the evaluation of energy balance, data were organized to determine the number of volunteers adopting hypocaloric, normocaloric, or hypercaloric diets. To assess alignment with objective, implementing a hypocaloric diet was considered appropriate for weight loss purposes, while a hypercaloric diet was deemed suitable for muscle gain. Additionally, the number of volunteers exceeding or falling short of recommendations for each macronutrient was evaluated. Tabulation and analysis of all these data were conducted using Excel software (2019).

 

Results 

 

    The volunteers had a mean age of 23.00 ± 3.35 years, mean height of 1.63 ± 0.07 meters, mean body mass of 59.9 ± 6.83 kilograms, and mean body mass index (BMI) of 22.50 ± 1.81 kg/m². These data were obtained from self-reports, by the volunteers.

 

    The collected data indicated that the variables TEI (Kcal), EB (Kcal), CHO (g/kg/day), PTN (g/kg/day), and LIP (g/kg/day) showed significant differences (p < 0.05), while the mean values of TEE (Kcal) did not differ between groups, despite individual variations. These results are shown in Table 1.

 

	Mean	Standard deviation	p
TEE (Kcal)	1961	204	0.760
TEI (Kcal)	1752	498	0.004*
EB (Kcal)	-209	498	0.012*
CHO (g/kg/day)	3.38	1.38	<0.001*
PTN (g/kg/day)	1.96	0.54	<0.001*
LIP (g/kg/day)	0.88	0.36	0.012*

*Statistically significant difference between groups (p<0.05). Source: Authors

 

    In Table 2, the results are presented with means and standard deviations for each group. There were statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) in the variable TEI, which was higher in the HyperWith group compared to the WLossWith (p = 0.006) and WLossWithout groups (p = 0.011). Regarding energy balance, significant differences were observed between the WLossWith and HyperWith groups (p = 0.006), and between the HyperWith and WLossWithout groups (p = 0.008).

 

    Regarding macronutrients, the variable CHO stood out with significant differences between the groups. The mean CHO values were higher in the HyperWith group compared to the WLossWith (p < 0.001) and WLossWithout groups (p < 0.001). Additionally, significant differences were observed when comparing the HyperWithout group with both the WLossWith (p = 0.011) and WLossWithout groups (p < 0.001).

 

    The means of PTN also showed statistically significant differences (p < 0.05), being higher in the HyperWith group compared to the WLossWithout group (p < 0.001) and the HyperWithout group (p = 0.002). Finally, LIP means were statistically higher in the HyperWith group, with the only significant difference observed, when comparing it to the WLossWith group (p = 0.044).

 

	HyperWith	WLossWith	HyperWithout	WLossWithout
TEI (Kcal)	2087 ± 538*	1532 ± 205	1818 ± 584	1569 ± 393
TEE (Kcal)	1941 ± 199	1936 ± 208	2007 ± 203	1958 ± 217
EB (Kcal)	146 ± 617*	-403 ± 157	-189 ± 551	-388 ± 347
CHO (g/kg/day)	4.37 ± 1.22*	2.73 ± 0.62**	4.01 ± 1.42	2.41 ± 1.06**
PTN (g/kg/day)	2.42 ± 0.36#	2.01 ± 0.30	1.80 ± 0.63	1.60 ± 0.46
LIP (g/kg/day)	1.06 ± 0.38##	0.73 ± 0.10	0.88 ± 0.34	0.83 ± 0.46

*Statistically significant difference compared to WLossWith and WLossWithout

**Statistically significant difference compared to HyperWithout

#Statistically significant difference compared to HyperWithout and WLossWithout

##Statistically significant difference compared to WLossWith

Source: Authors

 

    In Table 3, the number of volunteers and the percentage distribution of each group based on the adopted diet type are presented. A hypocaloric diet was found in the majority of volunteers. In contrast, a hypercaloric diet was observed only in the HyperWith, HyperWithout, and WLossWithout groups. Lastly, a normocaloric dietary profile was observed in the HyperWith and HyperWithout groups.

 

	Hypocaloric		Normocaloric		Hypercaloric
	n	%	n	%	n	%
HyperWith	6	9.38	3	4.69	7	10.94
WLossWith	16	25.00	0	0	0	0
HyperWithout	9	14.06	3	4.69	4	6.25
WLossWithout	15	23.44	0	0	1	1.56

Source: Authors

 

    Table 4 presents the number of volunteers and the percentage distribution according to adequacy of energy balance for each objective. Most volunteers showed adequate intake, with a noted prevalence in the groups receiving professional nutritional support (HyperWith and WLossWith). Inadequacy was observed among the HyperWith, HyperWithout, and WLossWithout groups.

 

	With adequacy		Without adequacy
	n	%	n	%
HyperWith	7	43.75	9	56.25
WLossWith	16	100.00	0	0
HyperWothout	4	25.00	12	75.00
WLossWithout	15	93.75	1	06.25

Source: Authors

 

    Table 5 presents the number of volunteers and the percentage distribution of volunteers who exceed or fall short of recommendations for each macronutrient. Regarding the CHO variable, volunteers in all groups did not reach the minimum recommended intake (3 g/kg/day), with this occurrence being more common in the WLossWithout group. On the other hand, the HyperWith, HyperWithout, and WLossWithout groups exceeded the maximum recommended values. In the analysis of the PTN variable, it is evident that most participants consume quantities above 2.0 g/kg/day across all groups. Only the HyperWithout and WLossWithout groups recorded values below 1.2 g/kg/day. In the context of the LIP variable, the HyperWith and WLossWithout groups included participants both below and above the recommendations. Additionally, the HyperWithout group had one participant whose intake was below the recommended daily minimum.

 

	CHO				PTN				LIP
	< 3,0 g/kg/day		> 5,0 g/kg/day		< 1,2 g/kg/day		> 2,0 g/kg/day		< 0,5 g/kg/day		> 1,5 g/kg/day
	n	%	n	%	n	%	n	%	n	%	n	%
HyperWith	1	6.25	6	37.50	0	0	11	68.75	1	6.25	2	12.50
WLossWith	9	56.25	0	0	0	0	5	31.25	0	0	0	0
HyperWithout	4	25.00	2	12.50	4	25.00	6	37.50	1	6.25	0	0
WLossWithout	13	81.25	1	6.25	3	18.75	2	12.50	4	25.00	2	12.50

Source: Authors

 

Discussion 

 

    This study aimed to characterize and analyze the influence of professional nutritional support on the dietary profile and energy balance of strength-trained women, and to assess compliance with specific dietary intake guidelines. The hypothesis was that nutritional intervention would ensure compliance with recommendations and align with the volunteers objectives to a greater extent than without professional guidance.

 

    The results indicate that TEE did not show statistically significant differences between groups, while total energy intake was higher in the HyperWith group, along with carbohydrate, protein, and lipid consumption. Energy balance was higher in the WLossWith and WLossWithout groups. However, most volunteers who did not meet the ISSN (Kerksick et al., 2018) recommendations were in groups without professional nutritional support (HyperWithout and WLossWithout). Additionally, it is clear that volunteers with adequate EB were mainly in the groups with professional nutritional support (HyperWith and WLossWith). Thus, the study hypothesis was confirmed, as compliance with guidelines was observed among most volunteers who had received support and/or intervention from nutritionists, with dietary plan prescriptions and guidance from qualified professionals provided up to six months prior to data collection.

 

    As shown in Table 1, the average TEI among the four groups did not differ significantly. However, Table 2 indicates a higher TEE in the HyperWithout group, followed by WLossWithout, HyperWith, and WLossWith. Energy needs are influenced by genetics, gender, age, weight, body composition, fitness level, exercise type, and training stage (Brazilian Society of Exercise and Sports Medicine, 2009). Personal objectives like weight reduction, muscle mass increase, or body composition maintenance must be considered when determining total energy intake in a diet (Brazilian Society of Exercise and Sports Medicine, 2009). Energy balance (calculated as the difference between TEI and TEE) (Souza et al., 2010), guides the individual toward their objectives. In this study, the WLossWith and WLossWithout groups exhibited the highest energy deficit. Inadequate EB variation can lead to muscle mass reduction and hormonal imbalances (Gomes et al., 2017), emphasizing the need for professional intervention to adjust a hypocaloric diet.

 

    Based on the results in Table 3, most volunteers followed a hypocaloric diet, particularly in weight loss groups (WLossWith and WLossWithout). However, among the HyperWith and HyperWithout groups, women without professional nutritional support also favored hypocaloric diets. Such calorie restrictions, without professional oversight, may compromise strength, physical function, and athletic performance (Keenan et al., 2020). Adequate protein and calorie intake, alongside strength training, effectively mitigate lean mass loss during calorie restriction (Tinsley et al., 2016; Keenan et al., 2020; Kerksick et al., 2018) and promote muscle mass gain (Morocho-Quinchuela et al., 2023; Menon, & Santos, 2012), as seen in WLossWith and WLossWithout groups (Table 5). Conversely, hypercaloric diets were noted in HyperWith, HyperWithout, and WLossWithout groups (Table 3). For groups targeting muscle hypertrophy, maintaining a balanced diet with a slight caloric surplus and sufficient protein is crucial (Morocho-Quinchuela et al., 2023; Panza et al., 2007; Silva et al., 2012). Finally, HyperWith and HyperWithout groups included volunteers with normocaloric diets, consistent with studies showing potential muscle fiber hypertrophy even under normocaloric conditions, depending on muscle group training levels. (Fonseca et al., 2014; Machado, & Paixão, 2012)

 

    The study evaluated each volunteer's objective alignment with their dietary intake. Therefore, for women aiming for weight loss, adopting a hypocaloric diet was considered appropriate, as this is the most commonly used nutritional strategy for overall body mass loss (Keenan et al., 2020). For those aiming for muscle hypertrophy, a hypercaloric diet was considered suitable, which is indicated as an effective approach to enhance muscle mass gain (Churchward-Venne et al., 2013). Most volunteers, especially those receiving professional nutritional support, aligned their intake with their objectives (Table 4). This emphasizes how professional guidance enhances adherence to dietary recommendations and aligns with individual objectives.

 

    Beyond caloric adequacy, compliance with macronutrients in a diet is crucial for maintaining physiological processes and maximizing training responses (McArdle et al., 2016; Kerksick et al., 2017). As shown in Table 2, the average intake values of CHO align with the recommendations of ISSN (Kerksick et al., 2018), ranging from 3 to 5 g/kg/day, necessary to maintain glycogen stores and glucose levels. Moreover, intense exercise uses carbohydrates as energy and preserves proteins, especially during periods of caloric restriction (Panza, 2015). However, Table 5 shows that many women did not reach the minimum recommended intake (3 g/kg/day), consistent with the study by Oliveira et al., where 90.9% of volunteers consumed less carbohydrates than recommended. This can be explained by the frequent use of low-carbohydrate diets as a strategy for weight loss (Almeida et al., 2009).

 

    In the present study, most of the volunteers with carbohydrate consumption below the recommended levels were in the WLossWithout and WLossWith groups, respectively. However, inadequate carbohydrate intake can lead to a significant decrease in muscle glycogen stores (Nato, 2021) and if not corrected may result in early muscle fatigue (Pereira et al., 2016), affecting exercise performance (Powers, & Howley, 2012). On the other hand, the majority of volunteers with carbohydrate consumption above the maximum recommended level are in the HyperWith group, as supported by findings from the Brazilian Society of Exercise and Sports Medicine (2009) and the ISSN (Kerksick et al., 2018), which emphasize, in some cases, the effectiveness of high-carbohydrate diets for muscle hypertrophy.

 

    Following the ISSN (Kerksick et al., 2018) guidelines, the average consumption values (Table 2) in the WLossWith, HyperWithout, and WLossWithout groups align with the recommended daily range of 1.2 to 2.0 g/kg/day (Phillips et al., 2016; Witard et al., 2016; Jäger, 2017; Tipton, & Witard, 2007). However, only volunteers without professional nutritional support (HyperWithout and WLossWithout), did not meet the minimum value (Table 5). Additionally, higher protein intake was observed in all analyzed groups (Table 5), which is consistent with the American College of Sports Medicine [ACSM] (2009) recommendation for slightly higher protein intake for active individuals. Furthermore, the high protein consumption observed is supported by other studies, such as Moreira, & Rodrigues (2014), who reported that 100% of their sample had a high-protein diet. Similarly, Ribas et al. (2015) identified this trend among their volunteers, reinforcing the findings of this study. Nonetheless, research suggests that excessive protein intake does not necessarily lead to muscle hypertrophy. (Paiva et al., 2013)

 

    Furthermore, the ISSN (Kerksick et al., 2018) highlights that to optimize the maintenance of lean body mass in individuals engaged in strength training under caloric restriction, a higher protein intake may be necessary, ranging from 2.3 to 3.1 g/kg/day (Kerksick et al., 2018). This situation was observed among the volunteers in the weight loss groups (WLossWith and WLossWithout), with the majority present in the group with guidance (WLossWith) (Table 5). Therefore, these data emphasize the effectiveness of professional nutritional support as indicated by the prevalence of adequacy in the WLossWith group.

 

    Average lipid intake values of the volunteers (Table 2) aligned with ISSN (Kerksick et al., 2018) guidelines, recommending 0.5 to 1.5 g/kg/day. Moderate intake within these ranges, as suggested by the literature (Miller, 2001) (Miller et al., 1997), supports weight management. However, some volunteers, particularly in groups without professional nutritional support (HyperWithout and WLossWithout), consumed below the recommended minimum (Table 5). This can lead to insufficient consumption of fat-soluble vitamins and essential fatty acids, potentially affecting the endocrine system and causing nutritional and hormonal deficiencies, including amenorrhea in women (ACSM, 2016; Donatto et al., 2008). Conversely, higher lipid intake levels observed in the HyperWith and WLossWithout groups (Table 5) pose a risk for chronic noncommunicable diseases. (Claro et al., 2015)

 

    Based on the data, it was evident that the volunteers showed partial adequacy in dietary intake, with the groups receiving professional nutritional support mostly adhering to the parameters. This highlights the need for personalized dietary strategies suited to the objectives of each practitioner (Moreira; & Rodrigues, 2014). It's also crucial for nutritionists to stay informed about nutrition's impact on exercise, to offer accurate guidance. (McArdle et al., 2016)

 

    However, the present study has limitations due to potential bias in the estimation of total caloric value, total energy expenditure, and energy balance, which can occur due to underreporting or omission in dietary records, like the R24H (Panza et al., 2007), as well as inaccuracies in self-reported exercise practices, which can lead to overestimation of energy expenditure (McArdle et al., 2016). To minimize bias in EB, a margin of 5% was considered to accommodate variations (Parreira et al., 2022). Nonetheless, further research is needed to follow the volunteers over a longer period to implement dietary records over different non-consecutive days. Additionally, monitoring physical exercise is necessary to reduce the overestimation of the volunteers' TEE. Also, the sample size, determined by convenience, may be a limitation of the study, highlighting the need for additional research with larger samples and different populations. This research is crucial for understanding the dietary habits and energy balance of strength-trained women, and for assessing macronutrient adequacy across different groups. The study shows that most women meeting the analyzed criteria received professional nutritional support. It also innovates by evaluating volunteers based on specific objectives like muscle hypertrophy and weight loss, offering a more effective way to gauge intervention, prescription, and professional nutritional support efficacy. Additionally, it highlights areas for future research, including participant body composition assessment, the impact of guidance duration on intervention effectiveness, and comparing prescribed versus actual diets consumed.

 

Conclusion 

 

    The findings of the present study reinforce the need for professional nutritional support for strength-trained women, with objectives related to weight loss and muscle hypertrophy. The dietary profile and energy balance found were partially aligned with the nutritional recommendations in the scientific literature, being more prevalent among women who receive professional nutritional support.

 

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Lecturas: Educación Física y Deportes, Vol. 29, Núm. 321, Feb. (2025)