Introduction
The Ecuadorian military education, from its origins was scattered and
disorganized with an independent planning in each of the institutions of the
Armed Forces; that is to say Army, Navy and Air Forces, each one complying their
own needs and the relations and influence of different countries, whose
doctrines were assimilated by their military academic formation. The Army signed
an agreement of parallel courses between the Escuela Politécnica del Ejército
ESPE and the Escuela Superior and Colegio Militar “Eloy Alfaro” (ESPE,
1982), giving origin to the university formation of military officers. For its
part, the National Council of Universities and Polytechnical Schools (CONUEP in
Spanish) considers year 1982 as the official start of the degree in Military
Science (CES, 2015).
In the Navy something similar happened with the creation of the Navy University
“Comandante Rafael Morán Valverde”, which in 2006 was appointed as
university by the state and in the Air Force were signed accords with private
universities for the academic university formation of its cadres, in the 1980s,
creating a separate and disperse system for the formation of officers and troop
personnel.
As part of the re-structure of the higher education system in Ecuador from 2007,
were redefined the quality standards of the educative institutions, developing a
process of closure of universities and polytechnic schools that did not count on
the minimum requirements to function, for which 14 out of the 47 public and
private institutions existing in 2013 were closed (CEAACES, 2013).
For the higher military education system, June 26, 2013, is a historic date with
the creation of the Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE, joining the
academic systems of the three forces (Universidad Naval “Comandante Rafael
Morán Valverde”-UNINAV, the Instituto Tecnológico Superior Aeronáutico
-ITSA, and the Escuela Politécnica del Ejército –ESPE). This change implied
an evolution in terms of methodology, minimum requirements, thinking and
attitude in the military academic formation that adapts to the requirements and
standards the Secretariat of Higher Education, Science, Technology and
Innovation (SENESYCT in Spanish) has introduced in these years of academic
transformation in the country.
Methods
Taking into account the objective of the present paper, the historic method was
very useful since it allowed determining the evolution of the military education
in Ecuador from its origins and the transformations since 2013. There were
applied the procedures of analysis and synthesis to analyze the process in parts
and establish relations among them. Besides, there were applied the dialectic
and systemic logical methods. The former turned out to be very important to
establish the links of the evolution of the military education process with
different periods of history, and especially to establish the new requirements
according to the current state of the development of higher education in the
country; for which were applied the abstraction and induction-deduction
procedures. For its part, the systemic method allowed orienting the work towards
the characterization of the military teaching system of the country and the
identification of some of its basics.
Results
and discussion
The main results of the application of theoretical methods are focused on the
antecedents of the military education, as well as the origins of this type of
teaching in Ecuador until 2013, a stage from which are assessed the
transformations produced with the creation of the Universidad de las Fuerzas
Armadas ESPE. Likewise, it is carried out an analysis of the military training
system, with emphasis in the characterization of the formation, training and
postgraduate centers, as well as the fundamentals and peculiarities of this type
of teaching.
1.
Antecedents of the military education
Military education exists since the very moment when peoples organized to have
educated individuals to defend and preserve the inhabitants, the belongings and
the land. The profession of soldier as a military man is as ancient as history
itself. This is also valid of the army of the pharaohs 1400 B.C, the soldiers of
the first Chinese emperor two and a half centuries ago and for the Roman troops
half a millennium ago (Wood, 2008). On the other side, Sparta was the only one
in ancient Greece, given its social system and constitution, completely focused
on a military training of excellence.
As the Spartan men began their military training at the age of seven under the
Agoge (Hodkinson y Powell, 2009) system, designed to foster discipline, physical
endurance and focus on the importance of Sparta as a state, given its military
superiority, Sparta was acknowledge as leader of the Greek forces combined
during the Greco-Persian wars (Cassin-Scott, 1977).
Thus the military education continued to evolve regardless of the status quo of
the government of a country, since education and the superiority of the military
men of every nation was decisive for the survival, development and prosperity as
a State (Donagan, 1995; Abbe y Halpin, 2010; Stiehm, 2010). In the past, the
higher military education, due to its exclusiveness, was a privileged profession
and included different social classes, mostly the elites (Barnett, 1967) and
then became a way to improve the social class after the duty per se (Holder y
Murray, 1998:81-90). Also, there are references of how sometimes the evolution
of the doctrine and the military education changed the policy of the State
(Franke, 1999; Masland y Radway, 2012), the way to keep peace (Cheney y Taylor,
1997) and the cooperation among states (Cope, 1995).
The contemporary military education is characterized by its extreme adaptation
to the specific circumstances of the political development in areas of conflict
or disputes not related to war, but with security and defence issues, like for
example taking part in activities to mitigate disasters caused by natural and
atrophic threats, participate in search and rescue of missing people in the
mountains, in the rainforest, woods, etc. This way of action different from the
regular or ancient academic training is taking place in the armed forces of the
world. As an example, we have the last Olympic Games held in Brazil, which
counted on a huge military contingent to patrol some areas and be alert on
possible cases of extreme leftist bombings.
2.
Origins of military education in Ecuador
Before colonization, the American continent was populated by several native
civilizations and cultures with special and own features (Bouchard, 1989;
Salazar, 1995; Caillavet y Pachón, 1996).
For that reason Ecuador has a faithful wealth of native peoples that by instinct
of preservation and survival had influence in the adoption of support,
protection methods and defence and tools for attack, as the national history
describes, which leads to the origin of the first fighters and the creation of
an organization that eventually became the Ecuadorian Army, which needed, of
course, a structure and a system to form officers, starting the military
education. The FFAA (armed forces) were created and strengthened throughout some
historical events in 1830 such as:
-
The
presence and pressure of some military leaders that claimed power.
-
The
murder of Marshal Antonio José de Sucre, in Berruecos.
-
The
definitive restraint of Simon Bolivar from political campaigns
-
The
aspiration of leaders interested in establishing a Republic independent from
Spain.
-
Appointment
of General Juan José Flores as first president of Ecuador.
-
The
creation of the First Constituent Assembly which proclaimed the constitution
of the Ecuadorian Army as part of the Ecuadorian Armed Forces (FF. AA)
(Macías, 2008).
Since it is a historical and relevant event, it is worth mentioning that on
March 8, 1838, subscribed by president Vicente Rocafuerte, was issued the
corresponding executive decree that officially established the Military School
in the capital of the Republic and from which second lieutenants would graduate
(COMIL, 1837).
In regard to military education, the country counted with support for the
formation and training with the military mission in Chile 1886, although as
result there were a few well trained officers left (Macías, 2008).
In 1892, president Luis Cordero implemented a firm change on the military system
with the introduction of educative reforms in the Military School, whose purpose
was to exploit the cognitive skills of the cadets (Macías, 2008).
The second foreign military mission of the country in 1920 came from Italy
(Bravo, 2014); hired with the purpose of reinforcing and modifying the
innovating proposals of the Chilean predecessor and had the opportunity to open
the Academy of War and create and boost the formative and training activities of
the schools of arms and service improvement (Macías, 2008).
In the second decade of the previous century began a process to build the
Artillery School, a solid base of the future University of the Armed Forces.
On June 16, 1922 was organized the first special course of Engineers in the new
School of engineer officers and the graduation ceremony took place on March 12,
1925. On October 22, 136, by initiative of General Alberto Enríquez Gallo, and
under the signature of Officer Federico Páez, in charge of the Manso Supremo of
the Republic of Ecuador, was created the Artillery and Engineering School
(Bravo, 2014).
Only in 1951 was recognized the creation of the Military University of the Armed
Forces, as an academic system, becoming afterwards the technical School of
Engineers, appointed in a public event by the university of the country, was
shown as a university given its academic quality (Bravo, 2014).
The institutional modernization process of the Armed Forces in the Security and
Defense areas, that began early this century, influenced in the update of the
educative model of the Military Schools, guaranteeing a comprehensive formation
according to the new national and international requirements and especially of
the Armed Forces.
3.
Ecuadorian military education since 2013
The military education in Ecuador made an important turn on June 26, 2013, with
the creation of the Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE and the union of
three centres of higher studies:
-
Universidad
Naval “Comandante Rafael Morán Valverde”-UNINAV.
-
Instituto
Tecnológico Superior Aeronáutico -ITSA.
-
Escuela
Politécnica del Ejército –ESPE.
By resolution RPC-SO-24-No 248-2013 of the Higher Education Council on June 2013
was approved the statute of the Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE.
Article 47 of the statute states that “The
Rector will be appointed by the Chief of the Joint Command of the Armed Forces
of the shortlist of three candidates of each force to which corresponds the
rectorate, which will be by order of origin of the Forces, for a five year term”.
Article 1 of the Statute of the Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE (coded)
status: “The Universidad de las Fuerzas
Armadas ESPE is a non-profit institution of higher education, with legal
capacity, public right and academic, administrative, financial, organic autonomy
and self-heritage. As a higher education institution of the Armed forces depends
of the Joint Command of the Armed Forces in: constitutional policy in the higher
education area, designation of executive authorities; and appointment of the
necessary military personnel for the work of the University, in conformity with
the present statute”.
With the creation of the University was created the plan for the strengthening
of the military careers, which are part of the national academic system, from
the technological, graduate and postgraduate levels in the military formation
and improvement; allowing that the three forces: land, sea and air are correctly
balanced in the academic and professional training of its staff.
The creation of this institution have had influence in the fact that Ecuador
counts on an updated and innovating system of military training assuming a
curricular design by competence similar to other western countries (Dornbusch,
1955; McNally, Gerras y Bullis, 1996), which allows the graduate soldiers to
have a better performance by having an educative model exclusive for the Armed
Forces. The aforementioned is supported by the policy of curricular redesigns
defined in the technological, graduate and postgraduate levels, where all the
higher education institutions are immersed.
3.1.
Military formation system in Ecuador
As part of the National System of Equalization and Admission (SNNA) of the
country, the young high school graduates that wish to join technological or
graduate military careers, must fulfil the chronogram established in the
training schools for soldiers and officers candidates, with a schedule demanding
tasks and activities, especially in the physical, academic and psychological
aspects.
The high school graduates selected for the soldier formation schools enter the
institutions of the Army, the Navy or the Air Force and after two years of study
they reach the rank of private and the academic degree, acknowledged by the
SENESYCT as technologist in Military Sciences.
The degree formation stage (third level) takes place in the Higher Military
Schools, where young men and women begin their academic military training for
four years and then graduate with two degrees both military and of higher
education.
The military formation degrees are:
With the academic-technological training guaranteed by the Universidad de las
Fuerzas Armadas-ESPE, the officers also receive the degree of bachelor in
Military Sciences, after in-person courses in each of the following military
schools:
-
Escuela
Superior Militar Eloy Alfaro “ESMIL”.
-
Escuela
Superior Naval Comandante Rafael Morán Valverde “ESSUNA”.
-
Escuela
Superior Militar de Aviación Cosme Renella “ESSMA”.
The academic military formation comprises a curricular axis of military
formation in science, military culture, humanistic culture, science and
technology and physical culture; each area includes specific subjects according
to the necessities of the military institution that obeys to its own
professional characteristics (CCFFAAA, 2012).
The degree military education –third level- is planned through a curricular
design by competence, which allows the cadet or naval officer to prepare to
develop the planned competences of:
-
Command.
-
Manage
assigned resources.
-
Instructor
educate the subordinates in the military area.
-
Assess
and participate in the national development.
-
Represent
the commander of the unit at a local level; the institution and the unit in
national and international courses and the country in peace missions.
-
Maintain
the prestige of the institution with ethics and integrity.
The
study program valuates the importance of the exigency level required in the
academic formation, given the risk and responsibility of the functions to carry
out by the graduates such as: land, sea and air patrols, handle special weapons,
use explosives, participate in anti-crime actions and more military operations
of big risk and other activities that demand technical, practical and academic
training. It is worth mentioning that the English language is a graduation
requirement according to the standards of higher education, however due to the
importance of the mastery of this language, the military schools count on a
staff of teachers of English for their training.
3.1.1.
Formation and Training Centres of the Armed Forces
In the
Armed Forces there are centres for the formation and training of soldiers
(Army), naval officers (Navy) and soldiers (Air Force): the Escuela de
Formación de Soldados Nativos de la Selva “IWIAS” and the Escuela de
Formación de Soldados del Ejército “Héroes del Cenepa - ESFORSE”.
These
institutions grant the degree of Technologist in Military Science,
simultaneously with the soldier’s degree, with which they begin their military
career and then promotion courses in schools of arms and services of the Army.
The
Centro de Tecnología Naval CETNAV is the Higher Institute that grants the
degree on naval technologists in different specialties.
The
crew of the Navy are trained in the Escuela de Grumetes –ESGRUM and the
Escuela de Infantería de Marina –ESDEIM, which include seaman recruit courses
of Arms, Services and Specialists which just as the training schools of the
Army, grants a degree of technology to start a military career.
An
essential aspect that shows the evolution of the military formation system in
the country is the definition of a unique educative model for the three forces
by the Direction of Education and Military Doctrine of the Joint Command of the
Armed Forces.
3.1.2.
Postgraduate training
Once
graduated as second lieutenant or ensign, the young professional spends nearly
seven years using the knowledge acquired and continues to prepare themselves
academically through military training courses to reach the next rank of Captain
or Lieutenant and then Major or Lieutenant Commander.
With
the rank of Lieutenant Commander, the officer enters the academy in the Joint
Chiefs of Staff course, in which will be granted the degree of officer of the
Chiefs staff and fourth level postgraduate degree in the following programs:
-
Mastery
in Land Military Strategy.
-
Mastery
in Sea Military Strategy.
-
Mastery
in Military Sciences, Air Force Strategy.
With
the master degree, the officers of the Joint Chiefs of Staff will be ready to
ascend to the ranks of Lieutenant Colonel or Commander. This is one of the most
important ranks for officers, since they will have the opportunity to command
military areas, to provide military advisory, serve in every institution and the
country in different posts and tasks included in the laws and regulations in
force. A reason for which their academic training is operative and military
strategic, being completed by subjects and academic conferences that allowed
them fulfil the appropriate profile to become a commander of a military section.
All
over the world, the military structure is organized in a pyramid, since all
along the military career there is a separation of officers from the force for
different reasons, until just a few officers end their military career with the
highest ranks, and it is here where Colonels or Captains pass the last level of
the higher studies in the Instituto Nacional de Defensa “INADE”, graduating
as Officer of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and at a university level as Specialist
in Strategic Defense Studies, an official degree that allows them to certificate
the competence and conditions to participate in other activities for the rank of
Brigadier General or Rear Admiral. In the following years, they can also take
part in the selection process in order to reach the ranks to command one of the
forces or being considered in the corresponding Chiefs of Staff or in similar
tasks. The officer studying in the INADE when exchanging experiences with other
officers can learn of the joint planning to FACE different threats described in
the in-force laws and regulations.
That
is to say that the officer will be able to reach the following academia degrees
during his career:
-
Bachelor
in Military Science.
-
Master
in Military Strategy.
-
Specialist
in Strategic Defence Studies.
One of
the strengths of the academic formation is precisely the fact of having a
teaching staff with a high professional, scientific and pedagogical level.
Figure 1 shows a summary diagram of the military formation system in Ecuador
Figure
1. Military formation system in Ecuador
4.
Some fundamentals of the military education
Military
education must be understood as “a system of knowledge, skills and values
the Armed Forces delivers to its members all along their career through a
process of formation, improvement, specialization and permanent training that
prepares them to assume new responsibilities, not only making them agents of the
process, but capable of accept it and make use of it” (CCFFAAA, 2012).
The
success in the academic military training is also due to the permanent revision
of the planning and the solution of problems with a correct professional
training at all levels, as well as professionalism and the permanent effort for
the wellbeing of the most vulnerable social groups, especially those located in
deep places of the national geography, fulfilling the government’s policies
(SENPLADES, 2013). in which the three military institutions participate
actively, led from the Joint Chiefs of Staff of the Armed Forces, and where the
link of the university with the society is a pillar.
The
academic military formation in the country has worked as a civilian-military
system, making use of the existence of a university of the Armed Forces oriented
towards formation, training and improvement, which constitutes an exclusive icon
in Ecuador unlike in other countries.
See
that there are careers in the Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE, where
most students are civilians and a minor percentage are military personnel in
active duty, this is a multiplying factor for civilian students to understand
what is the role of the soldier in the society and to exchange academic opinions
and about the national reality.
According
to the legal standard in force, every five years takes place a curricular
redesign based on the career competence, essential to update the curriculum
according to the evolution and knowledge and considering good practices of other
armed forces in the region and the world.
Conclusions
Throughout
history, military education has been a boost for the development of the army,
the navy and the air force, evolving based on the necessities of the nations and
with the influence of the scientific and technical progress.
The
continent has made the necessary efforts through bilateral meetings for the
mobilization of teachers and military consultants in each of the institutions of
the Armed Forces. For that reason, it could be affirmed that the military
doctrine is in constant update, through the training and research of science and
military art.
Military
education is one of the main priorities of the Ecuadorian Armed Forces, oriented
towards the development of competence and skills, based on update knowledge that
guarantees the effective operation of the forces.
Military
education in Ecuador is aimed at both officer recruits and troop staff recruits,
with the possibility of distance learning in some careers and in-person classes
for priority careers in the institutions of the Armed Forces. That is one of the
strengths of the Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE, a center that focuses
its actions in aware discipline with an identity formed with ethical values and
leadership for the service of the community.
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